Notes on Topology
Last Modified 2023-11-20
Definition: Pseudometric, Symmetry, Triangle Inequality
Let be a set, and let be an ordered field. An -valued pseudometric on is a function that satisfies the following requirements:
- for all .
- Symmetry: for all .
- Triangle inequality: for all .
When the ordered field is not explicitly specified, it is usually assumed to be the ordered field of real numbers.
Pseudometrics are Nonnegative
Theorem: Let be a set, let be an ordered field, and let be an -valued pseudometric on . For all , we have .
Proof: Let be given. By the defining properties of a pseudometric, we have
which implies that . (Note that in all ordered fields .) ∎
Definition: Metric, Distance Function, Positivity
Let be a set, and let be an ordered field. An -valued metric on , also known as an -valued distance function on , is an -valued pseudometric that satisfies the following additional requirement:
- Positivity: For all , if , then .
In other words, the only difference between a pseudometric and a metric is that a pseudometric is allowed to assign an distance of zero to two distinct points, while a metric must assign positive distances between distinct points.
Definition: Generalized Pseudometric Space, Underlying Set, Distance Field, Point
A generalized pseudometric space is an ordered triple consisting of a set , called the underlying set, an ordered field , called the distance field, and an -valued pseudometric on . The elements of are called points.
Definition: Open Ball, , Closed Ball,
Let be a generalized pseudometric space, , and . The open ball of radius centered at , denoted by , is the subset of defined by
Similarly, the closed ball of radius centered at , denoted by , is the subset of defined by
Definition: Continuous at a Point, Everywhere Continuous, Continuous
Let and be generalized pseudometric spaces. A function is continuous at a point if, for every , there exists such that .
We say that is everywhere continuous, or simply continuous, if is continuous at every point .
Definition: Interior Point, Interior, , Open Set
Let be a generalized pseudometric space, and let . A point is an interior point of if there exists such that . The set of all interior points of , denoted by , is called the interior of .
We say that is open if every point in is an interior point of (i.e., ).
Definition: Close, Touches, Closure, , Closed Set
Let be a generalized pseudometric space, and let . A point is close to , or touches , if for every , there exists such that . The set of all points close to , denoted by , is called the closure of .
We say that is closed if contains every point that is close to (i.e., ).
Definition: Topology
Let be a set. A topology on is a collection of subsets of that satisfies the following requirements:
- Empty set is open: .
- Whole set is open: .
- Closed under arbitrary unions: If , then .
- Closed under finite intersections: If and is finite, then .
Definition: Topological Space, Point, Open Set
A topological space is an ordered pair consisting of a set , called the underlying set, and a topology on . The elements of are called the points of the topological space , and the elements of are called its open sets.
Definition: Closed Set
Let be a topological space. A subset is closed if .
In other words, a set is closed if and only if its complement is open. Because taking complements is an involution (i.e., for all ), the converse is also true: a set is open if and only if its complement is closed.
Note that, in topology, “open” and “closed” are not opposites! It is possible for a set to be both open and closed, and it is also possible for a set to be neither. In fact, there is a special name for sets that are both open and closed.
Definition: Clopen Set
Let be a topological space. A subset of is clopen if it is both open and closed.
Every topological space has at least two clopen sets: the empty set and the set itself.